Brstjjy

Foraminifera Temporal range: 542–0 Ma[1] PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Cambrian–Recent
Live Ammonia tepida (Rotaliida)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
(unranked):	SAR
(unranked):	Rhizaria
Phylum:	Retaria
Subphylum:	Foraminifera d'Orbigny, 1826
Orders
Allogromiida Carterinida Fusulinida — extinct Globigerinida Involutinida — extinct Lagenida Miliolida Robertinida Rotaliida Silicoloculinida Spirillinida Textulariida incertae sedis    Xenophyophorea    Reticulomyxa

Foraminifera (/fəˌræməˈnɪfərə/; Latin for "hole bearers"; informally called "forams") are members of a phylum or class of amoeboid protists characterized by streaming granular ectoplasm for catching food and other uses; and commonly an external shell (called a "test") of diverse forms and materials. Tests of chitin (found in some simple genera, and Textularia in particular) are believed to be the most primitive type. Most foraminifera are marine, the majority of which live on or within the seafloor sediment (i.e., are benthic), while a smaller variety float in the water column at various depths (i.e., are planktonic). Fewer are known from freshwater or brackish conditions, and some very few (nonaquatic) soil species have been identified through molecular analysis of small subunit ribosomal DNA.^[2][3]

Foraminifera typically produce a test, or shell, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure.^[4] These shells are commonly made of calcium carbonate (CaCO
₃) or agglutinated sediment particles. Over 50,000 species are recognized, both living (10,000)^[5] and fossil (40,000).^[6][7] They are usually less than 1 mm in size, but some are much larger, the largest species reaching up to 20 cm.^[8]

In modern Scientific English, the term foraminifera is both singular and plural (irrespective of the word's Latin derivation), and is used to describe one or more specimens or taxa: its usage as singular or plural must be determined from context. Foraminifera is frequently used informally to describe the group, and in these cases is generally lowercase.^[9]

Taxonomy

The taxonomic position of the Foraminifera has varied since their recognition as protozoa (protists) by Schultze in 1854,^[10]
there referred to as an order, Foraminiferida. Loeblich and Tappan (1992) reranked Foraminifera as a class^[11] as it is now commonly regarded.

The Foraminifera have typically been included in the Protozoa,^[12][13][14] or in the similar Protoctista or Protist kingdom.^[15][16] Compelling evidence, based primarily on molecular phylogenetics, exists for their belonging to a major group within the Protozoa known as the Rhizaria.^[12] Prior to the recognition of evolutionary relationships among the members of the Rhizaria, the Foraminifera were generally grouped with other amoeboids as phylum Rhizopodea (or Sarcodina) in the class Granuloreticulosa.

The Rhizaria are problematic, as they are often called a "supergroup", rather than using an established taxonomic rank such as phylum. Cavalier-Smith defines the Rhizaria as an infra-kingdom within the kingdom Protozoa.^[12]

Some taxonomies put the Foraminifera in a phylum of their own, putting them on par with the amoeboid Sarcodina in which they had been placed.

Although as yet unsupported by morphological correlates, molecular data strongly suggest the Foraminifera are closely related to the Cercozoa and Radiolaria, both of which also include amoeboids with complex shells; these three groups make up the Rhizaria.^[13] However, the exact relationships of the forams to the other groups and to one another are still not entirely clear. Foraminifera are closely related to testate amoebae.^[17]

The most recent taxonomy by Mikhalevich 2013.^[18]

• 
  Foraminifera d'Orbigny 1826
  
  
  
  • Order Reticulomyxida
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Schizocladea Cedhagen & Mattson 1992
    
    • Order Schizocladida
      
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Xenophyophorea Schultze 1904
    
    
    
    • Order Stannomida Tendal 1972
      
    
    
    • Order Psamminida Tendal 1972
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Astrorhizata Saidova 1981
    
    
    
    • Subclass Lagynana Mikhalevich 1980
      
      
      
      • Order Ammoscalariida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order Lagynida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order Allogromiida Loeblich & Tappan 1961
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Astrorhizana Saidova 1981
      
      
      
      • Order Astrorhizida Lankester 1885
        
      
      
      • Order Dendrophryida Mikhalevich 1995
        
      
      
      • Order Hippocrepinida Saidova 1981
        
      
      
      • Order †Parathuramminida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order Psammosphaerida Haeckel 1894
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Rotaliata Mikhalevich 1980 (hyaline foraminifers)
    
    
    
    • Subclass Globigerinana Mikhalevich 1980
      
      
      
      • Order Cassigerinellida Mikhalevich 2013
        
      
      
      • Order Globigerinida Carpenter, Parker & Jones 1862
        
      
      
      • Order Hantkeninida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order Heterohelicida Fursenko 1958
        
      
      
      • Order Globorotaliida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Textulariana Mikhalevich 1980
      
      
      
      • Order Nautiloculinida Mikhalevich 2003
        
      
      
      • Order Spiroplectamminida Mikhalevich 1992
        
      
      
      • Order Textulariida Delage & Hérouard 1896
        
      
      
      • Order Trochamminida Saidova 1981 (Carterinida Loeblich & Tappan 1955]
      
      
      • Order Verneuilinida Mikhalevich & Kaminski 2003
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Rotaliana Mikhalevich 1980
      
      
      
      • Superorder Robertinoida Mikhalevich 1980
        
        • Order Robertinida Mikhalevich 1980
          
        
        
      
      
      • Superorder Nonionoida Saidova 1981
        
        
        
        • Order Elphidiida Saidova 1981
          
        
        
        • Order Nummulitida Carpenter, Parker & Jones 1862
          
        
        
        • Order †Orbitoidida Copeland 1956
          
        
        
        • Order Nonionida Saidova 1981
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      • Superorder Buliminoida Saidova 1981
        
        
        
        • Order Cassidulinida d’Orbigny 1839
          
        
        
        • Order Buliminida Saidova 1981
          
        
        
        • Order Bolivinitida Saidova 1981
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      • Superorder Discorboida Ehrenberg 1838
        
        
        
        • Order Chilostomellida Haeckel 1894
          
        
        
        • Order Discorbida Ehrenberg 1838
          
        
        
        • Order Glabratellida Mikhalevich 1994
          
        
        
        • Order Planorbulinida Mikhalevich 1992
          
        
        
        • Order Rotaliida Lankester 1885
          
        
        
        • Order Rosalinida Delage & Hérouard 1896
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Nodosariata Mikhalevich 1992
    
    
    
    • Subclass Hormosinana Mikhalevich 1992
      
      
      
      • Order Ammomarginulinida Mikhalevich 2002
        
      
      
      • Order Nouriida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order †Pseudopalmulida Mikhalevich 1992
        
      
      
      • Order Saccamminida Lankester 1885
        
      
      
      • Order Hormosinida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Nodosariana Mikhalevich 1992
      
      
      
      • Order †Biseriamminida Mikhalevich 1981
        
      
      
      • Order Delosinida Revets 1989
        
      
      
      • Order Lagenida Delage & Hérouard 1896
        
      
      
      • Order †Palaeotextulariida Hohenegger & Piller 1975
        
      
      
      • Order Polymorphinida Mikhalevich 1980
        
      
      
      • Order Vaginulinida Mikhalevich 1993
        
      
      
      • Order Nodosariida Calkins 1926
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Spirillinata Mikhalevich 1992
    
    
    
    • Subclass Ammodiscana Mikhalevich 1980
      
      
      
      • Order †Plagioraphida Mikhalevich 2003
        
      
      
      • Order Ammodiscida Mikhalevich 1980 [Pseudoammodiscoida Conil & Lys 1970]
      
      
      • Order Ammovertellinida Mikhalevich 1999
        
      
      
      • Order Ataxophragmiida Fursenko 1958 [Orbitolinida Ehrenberg 1839]
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Spirillinana Mikhalevich 1992
      
      
      
      • Superorder †Archaediscoida Pojarkov & Skvortsov 1979
        
        
        
        • Order †Archaediscida Pojarkov & Skvortsov 1979
          
        
        
        • Order †Lasiodiscida Mikhalevich 1993
          
        
        
        • Order †Tetrataxida Mikhalevich 1981
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      • Superorder Involutinoida Hohenegger & Piller 1977
        
        
        
        • Order †Hottingerellida Mikhalevich 1993
          
        
        
        • Order Involutinida Hohenegger & Piller 1977
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      • Superorder Spirillinoida Hohenegger & Piller 1975
        
        
        
        • Order Seabrookiida Mikhalevich 1980
          
        
        
        • Order Cymbaloporida Mikhaelevich 2013
          
        
        
        • Order Spirillinida Hohenegger & Piller 1975
          
        
        
        • Order Patellinida Mikhalevich 1992
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    Class Miliolata Saidova 1981 (porcelaneous foraminifers)
    
    
    
    • Subclass Schlumbergerinana Mikhalevich 1992
      
      
      
      • Order Lituotubida Mikhalevich 1992
        
      
      
      • Order Loftusiida Kaminski & Mikhalevich 2004
        
      
      
      • Order Sphaeramminida Mikhalevich & Kaminski 2004
        
      
      
      • Order Cyclolinida Mikhalevich 1992
        
      
      
      • Order Haplophragmiida Loeblich & Tappan 1989
        
      
      
      • Order Schlumbergerinida Mikhalevich 1980 [Rzehakinida Saidova 1981]
      
      
      • Order Lituolida Lankester 1885
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    • Subclass Miliolana Saidova 1981
      
      
      
      • Clade Fusulinoids
        
        
        
        • Order †Ozawainellida Solovieva 1980
          
        
        
        • Order †Endothyroida Fursenko 1958
          
        
        
        • Order †Tournayellida Hohenegger & Piller 1973
          
        
        
        • Order †Fusulinida Fursenko 1958
          
        
        
        • Order †Neoschwagerinida Minato & Honjo 1966
          
        
        
        • Order †Schubertellida Skinner 1931
          
        
        
        • Order †Schwagerinida Solovieva 1985
          
        
        
        • Order †Staffellida Miklukho-Maklay 1949
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      • Clade Milioloids
        
        
        
        • Order †Costiferida Mikhalevich 1988
          
        
        
        • Order Squamulinida Mikhalevich 1988
          
        
        
        • Order Cornuspirida Jirovec 1953
          
        
        
        • Order Soritida Schultze 1854 [Orbitolitida Wedekind 1937]
        
        
        • Order Nubeculariida Jones 1875
          
        
        
        • Order Miliolida Delage & Hérouard 1896
          
        
        
        
        
      
      
      
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  

Living Foraminifera

Modern Foraminifera are primarily marine organisms, but living individuals have been found in brackish, freshwater ^[19] and even terrestrial habitats.^[3] The majority of the species are benthic, and a further 40 morphospecies are planktonic.^[20] This count may, however, represent only a fraction of actual diversity, since many genetically distinct species may be morphologically indistinguishable.^[21]

A number of forams have unicellular algae as endosymbionts, from diverse lineages such as the green algae, red algae, golden algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates.^[20] Some forams are kleptoplastic, retaining chloroplasts from ingested algae to conduct photosynthesis.^[22]

Biology

The foraminiferal cell is divided into granular endoplasm and transparent ectoplasm from which a pseudopodial net may emerge through a single opening or through many perforations in the test. Individual pseudopods characteristically have small granules streaming in both directions.^[19]
The pseudopods are used for locomotion, anchoring, and in capturing food, which consists of small organisms such as diatoms or bacteria.^[20]

The foraminiferal life-cycle involves an alternation between haploid and diploid generations, although they are mostly similar in form.^[10][23] The haploid or gamont initially has a single nucleus, and divides to produce numerous gametes, which typically have two flagella. The diploid or schizont is multinucleate, and after meiosis divides to produce new gamonts. Multiple rounds of asexual reproduction between sexual generations are not uncommon in benthic forms.^[19]

Tests

Foraminiferan tests (ventral view)

Fossil nummulitid foraminiferans showing microspheric and megalospheric individuals; Eocene of the United Arab Emirates; scale in mm

The miliolid foraminiferan Quinqueloculina from the North Sea

Thin section of a peneroplid foraminiferan from Holocene lagoonal sediment in Rice Bay, San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Scale bar 100 micrometres

Ammonia beccarii, a benthic foram from the North Sea.

Foraminifera Baculogypsina sphaerulata of Hatoma Island, Japan. Field width 5.22 mm

The form and composition of their tests are the primary means by which forams are identified and classified. Most have calcareous tests, composed of calcium carbonate.^[19] In other forams, the tests may be composed of organic material, made from small pieces of sediment cemented together (agglutinated), and in one genus, of silica. Openings in the test, including those that allow cytoplasm to flow between chambers, are called apertures. The test contains an organic matrix, which can sometimes be recovered from fossil samples.^[24]

Tests as fossils are known from as far back as the Cambrian period,^[25] and many marine sediments are composed primarily of them. For instance, the limestone that makes up the pyramids of Egypt is composed almost entirely of nummulitic benthic Foraminifera.^[26] It is estimated that reef Foraminifera generate about 43 million tons of calcium carbonate per year.^[27]

Genetic studies have identified the naked amoeba "Reticulomyxa" and the peculiar xenophyophores as foraminiferans without tests. A few other amoeboids produce reticulose pseudopods, and were formerly classified with the forams as the Granuloreticulosa, but this is no longer considered a natural group, and most are now placed among the Cercozoa.^[28]

Deep-sea species

Foraminifera are found in the deepest parts of the ocean such as the Mariana Trench, including the Challenger Deep, the deepest part known. At these depths, below the carbonate compensation depth, the calcium carbonate of the tests is soluble in water due to the extreme pressure. The Foraminifera found in the Challenger Deep thus have no carbonate test, but instead have one of organic material.^[29]

Four species found in the Challenger Deep are unknown from any other place in the oceans, one of which is representative of an endemic genus unique to the region. They are Resigella laevis and R. bilocularis, Nodellum aculeata, and Conicotheca nigrans (the unique genus). All have tests that are mainly of transparent organic material which have small (about 100 nm) plates that appear to be clay.^[29]

Evolutionary significance

Dying planktonic Foraminifera continuously rain down on the sea floor in vast numbers, their mineralized tests preserved as fossils in the accumulating sediment. Beginning in the 1960s, and largely under the auspices of the Deep Sea Drilling, Ocean Drilling, and International Ocean Drilling Programmes, as well as for the purposes of oil exploration, advanced deep-sea drilling techniques have been bringing up sediment cores bearing Foraminifera fossils.^[30] The effectively unlimited supply of these fossil tests and the relatively high-precision age-control models available for cores has produced an exceptionally high-quality planktonic Foraminifera fossil record dating back to the mid-Jurassic, and presents an unparalleled record for scientists testing and documenting the evolutionary process.^[30] The exceptional quality of the fossil record has allowed an impressively detailed picture of species inter-relationships to be developed on the basis of fossils, in many cases subsequently validated independently through molecular genetic studies on extant specimens^[31]
Larger benthic Foraminifera with complex shell structure react in a highly specific manner to the different benthic environments and, therefore, the composition of the assemblages and the distribution patterns of particular species reflect simultaneously bottom types and the light gradient. In the course of Earth history, larger Foraminifera are replaced frequently. In particular, associations of Foraminifera characterizing particular shallow water facies types are dying out and are replaced after a certain time interval by new associations with the same structure of shell morphology, emerging from a new evolutionary process of adaptation.^[32] These evolutionary processes make the larger Foraminifera useful as index fossils for the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

Uses

Because of their diversity, abundance, and complex morphology, fossil foraminiferal assemblages are useful for biostratigraphy, and can accurately give relative dates to sedimentary rocks, as was discovered by Alva C. Ellisor in 1920.^[33] The oil industry relies heavily on microfossils such as forams to find potential hydrocarbon deposits.^[34]

Calcareous fossil Foraminifera are formed from elements found in the ancient seas where they lived. Thus, they are very useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography. They can be used, as a climate proxy, to reconstruct past climate by examining the stable isotope ratios and trace element content of the shells (tests). Global temperature and ice volume can be revealed by the isotopes of oxygen, and the history of the carbon cycle and oceanic productivity by examining the stable isotope ratios of carbon;^[35] see δ18O and δ13C. The concentration of trace elements, like magnesium (Mg),^[36]lithium (Li)^[37] and boron (B),^[38] also hold a wealth of information about global temperature cycles, continental weathering, and the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle. Geographic patterns seen in the fossil records of planktonic forams are also used to reconstruct ancient ocean currents. Because certain types of Foraminifera are found only in certain environments, they can be used to figure out the kind of environment under which ancient marine sediments were deposited.

For the same reasons they make useful biostratigraphic markers, living foraminiferal assemblages have been used as bioindicators in coastal environments, including indicators of coral reef health. Because calcium carbonate is susceptible to dissolution in acidic conditions, Foraminifera may be particularly affected by changing climate and ocean acidification.

Foraminifera have many uses in petroleum exploration and are used routinely to interpret the ages and paleoenvironments of sedimentary strata in oil wells.^[39] Agglutinated fossil Foraminifera buried deeply in sedimentary basins can be used to estimate thermal maturity, which is a key factor for petroleum generation. The Foraminiferal Colouration Index ^[40] (FCI) is used to quantify colour changes and estimate burial temperature. FCI data is particularly useful in the early stages of petroleum generation (about 100 °C).

Foraminifera can also be used in archaeology in the provenancing of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera. The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

Gallery

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Pag Island, Adriatic Sea -60 m, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Pag Island, Adriatic Sea -60 m, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Pag Island, Adriatic Sea -60 m, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Pag Island, Adriatic Sea -60 m, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Indian Ocean, south-eastern coast of Bali, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Indian Ocean, south-eastern coast of Bali, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera of Indian Ocean, south-eastern coast of Bali, field width 5.5 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera in Ngapali, Myanmar, field width 5.22 mm
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Foraminifera Heterostegina depressa, field width 4.4 mm
  

  
  

  
  

References

External links

Wikispecies has information related to Foraminifera

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Foraminifera.

General information

• 
  The University of California Museum of Paleontology website has an Introduction to the Foraminifera
  


• Researchers at the University of South Florida developed a system using Foraminifera for monitoring coral reef environments
  


• University College London's micropaleontology site has an overview of Foraminifera, including many high-quality SEMs
  


• 
  Illustrated glossary of terms used in foraminiferal research is the Lukas Hottinger's glossary published in the OA e-journal "Carnets de Géologie — Notebooks on Geology"
  


• 
  Information on Foraminifera Martin Langer's Micropaleontology Page


• 
  Benthic Foraminifera information from the 2005 Urbino Summer School of Paleoclimatology

Online flip-books

• 
  Illustrated glossary of terms used in foraminiferal research by Lukas Hottinger (alternative version of the one published in "Carnets de Géologie — Notebooks on Geology")

Resources

• 
  pforams@mikrotax - an online database detailing the taxonomy of planktonic foraminifera


• The star*sand project (part of micro*scope) is a cooperative database of information about Foraminifera


• 
  3D models of forams, generated by X-ray tomography
  


• 
  CHRONOS has several Foraminifera resources, including a taxon search page and a micro-paleo section NB Most of this content is now included in the pforams@mikrotax website


• 
  eForams is a web site focused on Foraminifera and modeling of foraminiferal shells


• 
  Foraminifera Gallery Illustrated catalog of recent and fossil Foraminifera by genus and locality


• 
  "Foraminifera". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 29178.